“Models of Embryonic Gene-Induced Initiation and Reversion of Adult Neoplasms”.
John H. Frenster, MD 1, and Jeannette A. Hovsepian, MD 2,
Divisions of 1 Medical Oncology, and of 2
Diagnostic
Imaging,
Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305.
Phone: 650/367-6483, e-mail: frensterjh@aol.com
, hovsepianj@aol.com , http://www.euchromatin.net/
Supported in part by a USPHS Research Career Development Award (CA-17857) from the National Cancer Institute.
Embryonic gene re-expression can initiate adult neoplasms within normal adult mouse fibroblasts (Okito K, Ichisaki I, and Yamanaka S, “Generation of germline-competent induced pluripotent stem cells”, Nature 448: 313-317, July19, 2007). As little as only one normal embryonic gene need be re-expressed for such an adult neoplastic initiation to occur. This constitutes a minimal gene dose. The molecular mechanism is believed to involve the disruption of a normal nuclear signal between normal adult genes within the normal adult cell.
Conversely, certain microRNAs (let-7 RNA) are deficient within the resected tumors of patients with NSCLC lung cancer (Takamizawa J, Konishi H, Yanagisawa K, Tomida S, Osada H, Endo H, Harano T, Yatabe Y, Nagino M, Nimura Y, Mitsudomi T, and Takahashi T, “Reduced Expression of the Let-7 MicroRNAs in Human Lung Cancers in Association with Shortened Postoperative Survival”, Cancer Research 64: 3753-3756 (2004). When adult human NSCLC cancer cells in cell culture are treated with let-7 RNA via plasmid, their rate of growth in cultures is reduced toward normal (ibid).
The molecular mechanism is believed to reflect the known inhibitory effect of let-7 RNA on RAS and other oncogenes during embryogenesis (Johnson SM, Grosshans H, Shingara J, Byrom M, Jarvis R, Cheng A, Labourier E, Reinert KL, Brown D, and Slack FJ, “RAS is Regulated by the Let-7 MicroRNA Family”, Cell 120: 635-647 (2005). The transcriptome context within the cell nucleus during embryogenesis is quite different from that context within the cell nucleus of the same cells during adult life. Specific single gene expression in one phase of cell life may be inappropriate, or even dangerous, in another phase of cell life.
A simple hypothesis postulates that preventing such inappropriate embryonic gene re-expression may prevent initiation of adult neoplasms, while administration of specific embryonic ribo-regulators to adult neoplastic cells may be capable of reverting the neoplastic activity of such neoplasms.
Interestingly, it has already been shown that the administration of unfractionated total RNA from the bone marrow aspirates of normal human donors into the marrow or blood of adult patients with acute myelocytic leukemia in full relapse results in significant in-vivo reductions in the leukemic state within each patient (DeCarvalho S, “Effect of RNA from Normal Human Marrow on Leukemic Marrow In-Vivo”, Nature 197: 1077-1080 (March 16, 1963).
Adult neoplasms often re-express genes normally expressed only during embryogenesis. This ectopic re-appearance of RNA transcripts from these embryonic genes within normal adult cells may play a role in oncogenesis, metastases, and response to therapy of these adult cells.
For example, in the study of human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), it has been observed that activity of the embryonic gene enhancer let-7 is often deficient, and that when let-7 is added back to such cancer cells in culture, the functional phenotype of the cancer cells is normalized, (Takamizawa J, Konishi H, Yanagisawa K, Tomida S, Osada H, Endoh H, Harano T, Yatabe Y, Nagino M, Nimura Y, Mitsudomi T, and Takahashi T, “Reduced expression of the let-7 microRNAs in human lung cancers in association with shortened postoperative survival”, Cancer Res. 64: 3753–3756, 2004).
let-7 is an active locus in promoting cell differentition and maturation in embryonic cells, and is particularly important in controlling the activity of ras genes during embryogenesis, (Johnson SM, Grosshans H, Shingara J, Byrom M, Jarvis R, Cheng A, Labourier E, Reinert KL, Brown D, and Slack FJ, “RAS is regulated by the let-7 microRNA family”, Cell 120: 635–647, 2005).
It has now been shown that let-7 RNA binds to known embryonic
oncogenes, and by such binding, inactivates such oncogenes within adult
cells, (Mayr C, Hemann MT, and Bartel DP, "Disrupting the Pairing Between
let-7
and Hmga2 Enhances Oncogenic Transformation", Science,
315: 1576-1579, 2007).
A simple hypothesis postulates that specific embryonic cell
RNA
enhancers can have either positive or negative effects on their target
embryonic genes within specific adult cells, progressively disrupting the
adult gene signaling systems. This allows oncogenesis
to initiate from as little as one normal embryonic gene abnormally
re-expressing itself within one adult normal cell.
5. Takamizawa J, Konishi H, Yanagisawa K, Tomida S, Osada H, Endoh
H, Harano T, Yatabe Y, Nagino M, Nimura Y, Mitsudomi T, and Takahashi
T, “Reduced expression of the let-7 microRNAs in human lung cancers
in association with shortened postoperative survival”, Cancer
Research 64: 3753-3756 (2004).
6. Johnson SM, Grosshans H, Shingara J, Byrom M, Jarvis R, Cheng
A, Labourier E, Reinert KL, Brown D, and Slack FJ, “RAS is regulated by
the let-7 microRNA family”, Cell
120: 635-647 (2005).
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let-7
and Hmga2 Enhances Oncogenic Transformation", Science,
315: 1576-1579 (2007).
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Table 1: Interactions of sense and antisense RNAs within active
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Tetraplex Model of Paired Sense-Antisense RNA Synthesis".
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1. Embryonic genes are those normally expressed only during embryonic life.
2. These embryonic RNA enhancers and activators are most often not expressed within normal adult human cells.
3. The re-expression of normal embryonic genes within an adult normal cell carries the risk of initiating a neoplasm within the adult normal cell.
4. Some adult lung neoplasms express a deficiency of let-7 microRNA, with the more severe deficiency of let-7 microRNA correlating with a decreased patient survival after resection of the neoplasm.
5. Addition of let-7 microRNA via plasmid to such lung neoplastic cells in culture results in decreased growth of these cells.
6. Total unfractionated RNA from normal bone marrow donors can produce
brief clinical remissions when given to relapsed patients with acute
myelocytic leukemia.
1. Any embryonic gene is a potential oncogene, and is capable of initiating a neoplasm when it is re-expressed within an adult normal cell.
2. Embryonic gene ribo-regulator RNAs may reverse the action of such re-expressed embryonic genes.
3. Embryonic gene re-expression within normal adult cells is a final common RNA pathway for most, if not all, human neoplasms.
4. Ribo-regulator RNA therapy may be effective in reversing the neoplastic activity within neoplastic cells already damaged by chromosomal translocations, inversions, deletions, duplications or viral integrations.
5. Systems for the delivery of embryonic ribo-regulator RNAs can be developed for the therapy of adult neoplasms.
6. Ribo-regulator RNAs can be a focus of cancer therapy and of cancer prevention.
Some genes within adult cells are normally expressed only
during adult life.
Some genes within adult cells are normally expressed only
during embryologic or fetal life.
Some genes within adult cells are normally expressed during both
adult life and embryologic or fetal life.
Some genes within adult cells are not normally expressed,
except
during heat-shock or cold-shock.
Adult-only genes usually cannot express themselves
during embryonic life.
Mixed embryo-adult genes are expressed during both
embryonic life and adult life.
Embryo-only genes can be re-expressed ectopically
within adult cells.
The re-expression of embryonic genes within adult cells may
occur in the absence of embryonic controls.
The re-expression of embryonic genes in adult cells may
initiate or revert neoplasms in the adult cells.
Each re-expression of embryonic genes within adult cells
is a
case unto itself.
Any embryonic gene-initiated neoplasms may have quite diverse
transcription patterns.
1. Re-expression of embryonic genes within adult neoplasms now provide RNA and protein targets for effective therapy of human neoplasms.
(Wang J, Day R, Dong Y, Weintraub SJ, and Michel L,
"Identification of Trop-2 as an Oncogene and an Attractive
Therapeutic Target in Colon Cancers",
Molec.
Cancer Therap. 7: 280-285 (February 1, 2008).)
2. Re-expression of embryonic genes within adult neoplasms results in early invasive metastases.
( Sarrió D, Rodriguez-Pinilla SM, Hardisson D, Cano A, Moreno-Bueno
G, and Palacios J,
"Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Breast Cancer Relates to the
Basal-like Phenotype",
Cancer
Research 68, 989-997, February 15, 2008.)
3. Re-expression of embryonic RNA ribo-regulator let-7 microRNA suppresses human lung cancer cells.
(Kumar MS, Erkeland SJ, Pester RE, Chen CY, Ebert MS, Sharp PA, and
Jacks T,
"Suppression of non-small cell lung tumor development by the let-7
microRNA family",
Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 105, no. 10 pp. 3903-3908 (March 11, 2008).)
4. Oncogenes may compete and/or cooperate during initiation of adult neoplasms.
(Podsypanina K, Politi K, Beverly LJ, and Varmus HE,
"Oncogene cooperation in tumor maintenance and tumor recurrence
in mouse mammary tumors induced by Myc and mutant Kras",
Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A, 2008 Apr 1;105(13):5242-7. Epub 2008 Mar 20.)
5. Embryonic RNA controls self renewal and tumor activity in breast neoplasms.
(Yu F, Yao H, Zhu P, Zhang X, Pan Q, Gong C, Huang Y, Hu X, Su F,
Lieberman J, and Song E.,
"let-7 regulates self renewal and tumorigenicity of breast
cancer cells",
Cell.
2007 Dec 14;131(6):1109-23.)
6. Noncoding RNA genes are ultraconserved and altered within human neoplasms.
(Calin GA, Liu C-G, Ferracin M, Hyslop T, Spizzo R, Sevignani C,
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H, Rassenti L, Volinia S, Schmittgen TD, Kipps TJ, Negrini M, and Croce
CM,
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7. Embryonic RNA can distinguish between different types of neoplastic differentiation.
(Shell S, Park S-M, Radjabi AR, Schickel R, Kistner EO, Jewell DA,
Feig C, Lengyel E, and Peter ME,
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8. Embryonic stem-cell program is active within diverse human epithelial neoplasms.
(Wong DJ, Liu H, Ridky TW, Cassarino D, Segal E, and Chang HY,
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Stem Cells",
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9. Embryonic stem cell genes are active within adult human cervical cancer cells, but less so within normal, mildly dysplastic, or moderately dysplastic adult cervical cells, in patient biopsies.
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expressed in malignant cervical epithelial cells",
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A-L, Zhao Y, McDonald H, Zeng T, Hirst M, Eaves CJ, and Marra MA,
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46. Untransformed mammary cells may establish residence in the lung once they have entered the bloodstream and may assume malignant growth upon oncogene activation.
(Podsypanina K, Du Y-CN, Jechlinger M, Beverly LJ, Hambardzumyan
D, and Varmus H,
"Seeding and Propagation of Untransformed Mouse Mammary Cells in
the Lung",
Science 26 September 2008: Vol. 321. no. 5897, pp. 1841 - 1844 DOI:
10.1126/science.1161621
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/321/5897/1841.)
47. Inflammation-like state accelerates the migration of primary tumour cells to lung tissues.
(Hiratsuka S, Watanabe A, Sakurai Y, Akashi-Takamura S, Ishibashi
S, Miyake K, Shibuya M, Akira S, Aburatani H, and Maru Y,
"The S100A8–serum amyloid A3–TLR4 paracrine cascade establishes
a pre-metastatic phase",
Nature Cell Biology, Published online: 28 September 2008 | doi:10.1038/ncb1794
http://www.nature.com/ncb/journal/vaop/ncurrent/abs/ncb1794.html.)
48. Murine leukemia progression and expression of multiple miRNAs.
(Kuchenbauer F, Morin RD, Argiropoulos B, Petriv OI, Griffith M,
Heuser M, Yung E, Piper J, Delaney A, Prabhu A-L, Zhao Y, McDonald H, Zeng
T, Hirst M, Hansen CL, Marra MA, and Humphries RK,
"In-depth
characterization of the microRNA transcriptome in a leukemia progression
model".,
Published online before print October 10, 2008, Genome Research,
DOI: 10.1101/gr.077578.108)
49. Reprogramming of human cancer cells by microRNA.
(Lin S-L, Chang DC, Chang-Lin S, Lin C-H, Wu DTS, Chen DT,
and Ying S-Y,
"Mir-302
reprograms human skin cancer cells into a pluripotent ES-cell-like state".
RNA vol. 14: no. 10, pp. 2115-2124 (October, 2008).
50. Embryonic let-7 microRNA complementary site SNP in KRAS 3' UTR increases Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer risk".
(Chin LJ, Ratner E, Leng S, Zhai R, Nallur S, Babar I, Muller R-U,
Straka E, Su L, Burki EA, Crowell RE, Patel R, Kulkarni T, Homer R, Zelterman
D, Kidd KK, Zhu Y, Christiani DC, Belinsky SA, Slack FJ, and Weidhaas JB,
"A SNP in a let-7 microRNA complementary site in the
KRAS
3' Untranslated Region increases Non–Small Cell Lung Cancer risk",
Cancer
Research 68, 8535-8540, October 15, 2008. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-08-2129.)
51. Multiple non-uniform asynchronous chromosomal changes during neoplastic progression.
(Li X, Galipeau PC, Sanchez CA, Blount PL, Maley CC, Arnaudo
J, PeifferDA, Pokholok D, Gunderson KL, and Reid BJ,
"Single Nucleotide Polymorphism–Based Genome-Wide Chromosome Copy
Change, Loss of Heterozygosity, and Aneuploidy in Barrett's Esophagus Neoplastic
Progression",
Cancer Prevention Research 1, 413-423, November 1, 2008. doi: 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-08-0121)
http://cancerpreventionresearch.aacrjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/1/6/413?..)
52. Short RNA GAS1 suppresses metastases within human melanoma cell lines.
(Gobeil S, Zhu X, Doillon CJ, and Green MR,
"A genome-wide shRNA screen identifies GAS1 as a novel melanoma
metastasis suppressor gene",
Genes & Development. vol.22: no. 21, pp. 2932-2940, (November
1, 2008).
http://genesdev.cshlp.org/content/22/21/2932.abstract
).
53. Decrease in DNA copy-number is found within numerous human neoplasms.
(Varambally S, Cao Q, Mani R-S, Shankar S, Wang X, Ateeq
B, Laxman B, Cao X, Jing X, Ramnarayanan K, J.
Brenner JC, Yu J, Kim JH, Han B, Tan P, Kumar-Sinha C , Lonigro RJ, Palanisamy
N, Maher CA, Chinnaiyan AM,
"Genomic Loss of microRNA-101 Leads to Overexpression of
Histone Methyltransferase EZH2 in Cancer",
Published
Online November 13, 2008 Science DOI: 10.1126/science.1165395).)
54. Heat Shock protein reacts with Ras oncogene in neoplastic epithelial cells.
(Gabai VL, Yaglom JA, Waldman T, and Sherman MY,
"Heat Shock Protein Hsp72 Controls Oncogene-Induced Senescence Pathways
in Cancer Cells"
Molecular
and Cellular Biology, January 2009, p. 559-569, Vol. 29, No.2 ).
55. Proto-oncogene interferes with normal differentiation.
(Wise-Draper TM, Morreale RJ, Morris TA, Mintz-Cole RA, Hoskins EE,
Balsitis SJ, Husseinzadeh N, Witte DP, Wikenheiser-Brokamp KA, Lambert
PF and Wells SI,
"DEK Proto-Oncogene Expression Interferes with the Normal Epithelial
Differentiation Program",
Published online before print November 26, 2008 (American Journal
of Pathology. 2009;174:71-81.)
http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/abstract/284/2/1018?.)
56. Embryologic EMT genes activated in prostatic carcinoma.
(Shah GV, Muralidharan A, Gokulgandhi M, Soan K, and Thomas S,
"Cadherin Switching and Activation of b-Catenin
Signaling Underlie Proinvasive Actions of Calcitonin-Calcitonin Receptor
Axis in Prostate Cancer",
J.
Biol. Chem., Vol. 284, Issue 2, 1018-1030, January 9, 2009.)
Eastham AM, Spencer H, Soncin F, Ritson S, Merry CLR, Stern PL, and
Ward CM,
"Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Events during Human Embryonic
Stem Cell Differentiation",
Cancer
Research 67, 11254-11262, December 1, 2007.
Links to Reprogramming and Neoplasia:
Links to RNA and Biological Causality:
Links to RNA as a Therapeutic Agent:
Links to
Euchromatin Activator RNA Reviews:
Links to
Euchromatin Activator RNA Research:
Links to Ultrastructural
Probes of DNase I-Sensitive Sites:
Links to
RNA as a Therapeutic Agent:
Links to Hodgkin Lymphoma
Immuno-Pathology:
Links to Activated
T-Lymphocyte Immunotherapy:
Links to Medical
Systems Biology:
Links to Selective
Gene Transcription:
Links to RNA-Induced
Epigenetics:
Links to RNA-Induced
Embryogenesis:
Links to RNA and
Biological Causality:
Links to Reprogramming
and Neoplasia:
A Brief History of Activator RNA:
"Ultrastructural Probes of Active DNA Sites, and the RNA Activators of DNA". (PowerPoint Presentation).